Men who have sex with men

Men who may engage in same-sex sexual behaviours, such as these patrons of a gay club, may never self-identify as men who have sex with men, but researchers identify them as such for a variety of reasons.

Men who have sex with men (abbreviated as MSM, also known as males who have sex with males) are male persons who engage in sexual activity with members of the same sex, regardless of how they identify themselves; many men choose not to accept social identities of gay or bisexual.[1][2][3][4][5] The term was created in the 1990s by epidemiologists in order to study the spread of disease among men who have sex with men, regardless of identity.[2]

MSM is often used in medical literature and social research to describe such men as a group for research studies without considering issues of self-identification.

Contents

MSM as a constructed behavioral category

The term had been in use in public health discussions, especially in the context of HIV/AIDS, since 1990 or earlier, but the coining of the initialism by Glick et al. in 1994 "signaled the crystallization of a new concept."[6][7] This behavioural concept comes from two distinct academic perspectives. First, it was pursued by epidemiologists seeking behavioral categories that would offer better analytical concepts for the study of disease risk than identity-based categories (such as "gay", "bisexual", or "straight"), because a man who self-identifies as gay or bisexual is not necessarily sexually active with men, and someone who identifies as straight might be sexually active with men. Second, its usage is tied to criticism of sexual identity terms prevalent in social construction literature which typically rejected the use of identity-based concepts across cultural and historical contexts.

MSM are not limited to small, self-identified, and visible sub-populations. MSM and gay refer to different things: behaviors and social identities. MSM refers to sexual activities between men, regardless of how they identify, whereas gay can include those activities but is more broadly seen as a cultural identity. Homosexuality refers to sexual/romantic attraction between members of the same sex and may or may not include romantic relationships. Gay is a social identity and is generally the preferred social term, whereas homosexual is used in formal contexts, though the terms are not necessarily interchangeable. Men who are non-heterosexual or questioning may identify with all, none, a combination of these or one of the newer terms indicating a similar sexual, romantic, and cultural identity like bicurious.

In their assessment of the knowledge about the sexual networks and behaviors of MSM in Asia, Dowsett, Grierson and McNally concluded that the category of MSM does not correspond to a single social identity in any of the countries they studied.[8] There were no similar traits in all of the MSM population studied, other than them being males and engaging in sex with other men.

Applying MSM to transgender individuals

The term's precise use and definition has varied with regard to transwomen, people born either biologically male or with ambiguous genitalia who self-identify as female.[2][3][4][5] Some sources consider transwomen who have sex with men to be MSM,[3] others consider transwomen "along side" MSM,[2] and others are internally inconsistent (defining transgender women to be MSM in one place but referring to "MSM and transgender" in another).[5]

Health issues

Since LGBT people began to organize for their social and legal rights, access to equal health care has remained an important but often not primary issue. LGBT-specific health organizations including charities educating on specific issues, health clinics, and even professional organizations for LGBT people and allies have formed. Many of them have advocated for specific changes to various governmental practices and the ongoing effort to legalize same-sex marriage often includes examples of LGBT people unable to secure identical health coverage as that of their heterosexual counterparts.

Mental

Since medical literature began to describe homosexuality, it has often been approached from a view that sought to find an inherent psychopathology as the root cause. Much literature on mental health and homosexuals centered on their depression, substance abuse, and suicide. Although these issues exist among non-heterosexual men, discussion about their causes shifted after homosexuality was removed from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders in 1973. Instead, social ostracism, legal discrimination, internalization of negative stereotypes, and limited support structures indicate factors homosexuals face in Western societies that often adversely affect their mental health.[9]

Physical

A 2007 study reported that two large population surveys found "the majority of gay men had similar numbers of unprotected sexual partners annually as straight men and women."[10][11] With MSM, there are two main forms of sexual activity that carry greater risks, anal and oral sex, although not all MSM engage in them. MSM may also have greater risks in that they can switch sex roles.[10]

Main article: anal sex
19th century erotic interpretation of Hadrian and Antinous, by Paul Avril

Historically, anal sex has been popularly associated with male homosexuality and MSM. However, many MSM do not engage in anal sex. Among those who do have anal sex, the insertive partner is referred to as the top or active partner. The man being penetrated is referred to as the bottom or passive partner. Preference for either is referred to as versatile.

Anal sex is considered to be very risky behavior. It is possible for either sex partner to become infected with HIV during anal sex. In general, the person receiving the semen is at greater risk of getting HIV because the lining of the rectum is thin and may allow the virus to enter the body during anal sex. However, a person who inserts his penis into an infected partner also is at risk because HIV can enter through the urethra (the opening at the tip of the penis) or through small cuts, abrasions, or open sores on the penis., Also, condoms are more likely to break during anal sex than during vaginal sex. Thus, even with a condom, anal sex can be risky.[12]

Sexually transmitted infections

Main article: sexually transmitted disease

In developing countries, homosexual relationships may be illegal, making MSM difficult to reach.[1][13]

HIV/AIDS
Main article: Acquired immune deficiency syndrome

Acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) is a disease of the human immune system caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).[14][15][16] HIV can infect anybody, regardless of sex, ethnicity, or sexual orientation.[17][18][19][20][21][22] Worldwide, an estimate 5–10% of HIV infections are the result of men having sex with men.[23] While in the United States, "men who have had sex with men since 1977 have an HIV prevalence (the total number of cases of a disease that are present in a population at a specific point in time) 60 times higher than the general population".[24]

In 2007, the largest estimated proportion of HIV/AIDS diagnoses among adults and adolescents in the U.S. were men who have sex with men (MSM). This category accounted for 53% of the overall diagnoses and 71% among men.[25]

According to a CDC study, HIV prevalence in the U.S. MSM population varies widely by ethnicity. "As many as 46% of black MSM have HIV" while "the HIV rate is estimated at 21% for white MSM and 17% for Hispanic MSM."[26][27][28] In the United States from 2001–2005, the highest transmission risk behaviors were sex between men (40–49% of new cases) and high risk heterosexual sex (32–35% of new cases).[29] HIV infection is increasing at a rate of 12% annually among 13-to-24-year-old American men who have sex with men.[30][31][32] Experts attribute this to "AIDS fatigue" among younger people who have no memory of the worst phase of the epidemic in the 1980s and early 1990s, as well as "condom fatigue" among those who have grown tired of and disillusioned with the unrelenting safer sex message. The increase may also be because of new treatments.[30] In developing countries, HIV infection rates have been characterized as skyrocketing among MSM.[33] Studies have found that less than 5% of MSM in Africa, Asia, and Latin America have access to HIV-related health care.[33]

Hepatitis B
Main article: Hepatitis B

Hepatitis B is a disease caused by hepatitis B virus which infects the liver of hominoidae, including humans, and causes an inflammation called hepatitis. The disease has caused epidemics in parts of Asia and Africa, and it is endemic in China.[34] About a third of the world's population, more than 2 billion people, have been infected with the hepatitis B virus.[35] Transmission of hepatitis B virus results from exposure to infectious blood or body fluids containing blood. Possible forms of transmission include (but are not limited to) unprotected sexual contact, blood transfusions, re-use of contaminated needles and syringes, and vertical transmission from mother to child during childbirth. HBV can also be transmitted between family members within households, possibly by contact of nonintact skin or mucous membrane with secretions or saliva containing HBV.[36][37] However, at least 30% of reported hepatitis B among adults cannot be associated with an identifiable risk factor.[38]

Other STIs

MSM have an increased incidence and prevalence of STIs including Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus and syphilis.[39] This follows an increase in STDs among men who have sex with men in the U.S..[40]

Syphilis (caused by infection with Treponema pallidum) is passed from person to person through direct contact with a syphilis sore, which occur mainly on the external genitals or in the vagina, anus, or rectum.[41] Sores also can occur on the lips and in the mouth.[41] Transmission of the organism occurs during vaginal, anal, or oral sex.[41] In 2006, 64% of the reported cases in the United States were among men who have sex with men.[41] This is consistent with a rise in the incidence of Syphilis among MSM in other developed nations, attributed by Australian and UK authors to increased rates of unprotected sex in the MSM community.[42][43]

Genital human papillomavirus (HPV) is a common virus that most sexually active people in the U.S. will have at some time in their lives.[44] It is passed on through genital contact and is also found on areas that condoms do not cover.[44] Most men who get HPV of any type never develop any symptoms or health problems.[44] Some types of HPV can cause genital warts, penile cancer, or anal cancer.[44] MSM and men with compromised immune systems are more likely than other men to develop anal cancer.[44] Men with HIV are also more likely to get severe cases of genital warts that are hard to treat.[44][45][46]

Though not commonly associated as an STI, giardiasis is common among gay men.[47], and for individuals who have compromised immune systems, especially HIV, can be responsible for severe weight loss and death.[48]

See also

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 "MSM in Africa: highly stigmatized, vulnerable and in need of urgent HIV prevention". http://www.aidsportal.org/News_Details.aspx?id=5208&nex=5. 
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 "UNAIDS: Men who have sex with men" (asp). UNAIDS. http://www.unaids.org/en/PolicyAndPractice/KeyPopulations/MenSexMen/default.asp. Retrieved 2008-07-24. 
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 Greenwood, Cseneca; Mario Ruberte (9 April 2004). "African American Community and HIV (Slide 14 mentions TG women)" (ppt). East Bay AIDS Education and Training Center. http://www.hawaii.edu/hivandaids/African_American_Transgenders_and_HIV.ppt. Retrieved 2008-07-24. 
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 Operario D, Burton J, Underhill K, Sevelius J (January 2008). "Men who have sex with transgender women: challenges to category-based HIV prevention". AIDS Behav 12 (1): 18–26. doi:10.1007/s10461-007-9303-y. PMID 17705095. 
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 Operario D, Burton J (April 2000). "HIV-related tuberculosis in a transgender network—Baltimore, Maryland, and New York City area, 1998–2000". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 49 (15): 317–20. PMID 10858008. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm4915a1.htm. 
  6. ↑ Young RM, Meyer IH (July 2005). "The trouble with "MSM" and "WSW": erasure of the sexual-minority person in public health discourse". Am J Public Health 95 (7): 1144–9. doi:10.2105/AJPH.2004.046714. PMID 15961753. 
  7. ↑ Glick M, Muzyka BC, Salkin LM, Lurie D (May 1994). "Necrotizing ulcerative periodontitis: a marker for immune deterioration and a predictor for the diagnosis of AIDS". J. Periodontol. 65 (5): 393–7. PMID 7913962. 
  8. ↑ A review of knowledge about the sexual networks and behaviors of men who have sex with men in Asia. Dowsett, Grierson and McNally.[1]
  9. ↑ Schlager, Neil, ed. (1998). Gay & Lesbian Almanac. St. James Press. ISBN 1558623582, p. 152.
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 Sexual Behavior Does Not Explain Varying HIV Rates Among Gay And Straight Men
  11. ↑ Goodreau SM, Golden MR (October 2007). "Biological and demographic causes of high HIV and sexually transmitted disease prevalence in men who have sex with men". Sex Transm Infect 83 (6): 458–62. doi:10.1136/sti.2007.025627. PMID 17855487. 
  12. ↑ Center for Disease Control; "Can I get HIV from anal sex?"
  13. ↑ "Criminalizing high-risk groups such as MSM". http://infochangeindia.org/200801116825/Agenda/HIV/AIDS-Big-Questions/Criminalising-high-risk-groups-such-as-MSM.html. 
  14. ↑ Sepkowitz KA (June 2001). "AIDS—the first 20 years". N. Engl. J. Med. 344 (23): 1764–72. doi:10.1056/NEJM200106073442306. PMID 11396444. http://content.nejm.org/cgi/content/full/344/23/1764. 
  15. ↑ Weiss RA (May 1993). "How does HIV cause AIDS?". Science (journal) 260 (5112): 1273–9. PMID 8493571. 
  16. ↑ Cecil, Russell (1988). Textbook of Medicine. Philadelphia: Saunders. pp. 1523, 1799. ISBN 0721618480. 
  17. ↑ Ammann AJ, Wara DW, Cowan MJ (1984) Pediatric acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Ann N Y Acad Sci 437, 340–349 PMID 6242000
  18. ↑ Clumeck N, Mascart-Lemone F, de Maubeuge J, Brenez D, Marcelis L (1983) Acquired immune deficiency syndrome in Black Africans. Lancet 321, 642 PMID 613131
  19. ↑ Groginsky E, Bowdler N, Yankowitz J. (1998) Update on vertical HIV transmission. J Reprod Med 43, 637–646 PMID 9749412
  20. ↑ Oxtoby MJ. (1990) Perinatally acquired human immunodeficiency virus infection. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 9, 609–19 PMID 2235185
  21. ↑ Ryder RW, Hassig SE. (1988) The epidemiology of perinatal transmission of HIV. AIDS 2 Suppl 1, S83-S89 PMID 3147684
  22. ↑ van der Graaf M, Diepersloot RJ. (1986) Transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV/HTLV-III/LAV): a review. Infection 14, 203–11 PMID 3539811
  23. ↑ Men who have sex with men, HIV and AIDS
  24. ↑ http://www.fda.gov/biologicsbloodvaccines/bloodbloodproducts/questionsaboutblood/ucm108186.htm
  25. ↑ http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/resources/factsheets/us.htm
  26. ↑ http://www.infectiousdiseasenews.com/article/37101.aspx HIV more prevalent among black MSM despite fewer risk behaviors
  27. ↑ "Explaining disparities in HIV infection among black and white men who have sex with men: a meta-analysis of HIV risk behaviors". AIDS: Official Journal of the International AIDS Society. October, 2007. http://journals.lww.com/aidsonline/Fulltext/2007/10010/Explaining_disparities_in_HIV_infection_among.11.aspx. 
  28. ↑ Kaiser Daily HIV/AIDS Report Summarizes Opinion Pieces on U.S. AIDS Epidemic – The Body
  29. ↑ "2005 report". http://www.cdc.gov/hiv/topics/surveillance/resources/reports/2005report/table1.htm. 
  30. ↑ 30.0 30.1 Paddock, Catharine (27 June 2008). "HIV Rising Among Young Gay Men In The US". Medical News Today. http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/112998.php. 
  31. ↑ Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) (June 2008). "Trends in HIV/AIDS diagnoses among men who have sex with men—33 States, 2001–2006". MMWR Morb. Mortal. Wkly. Rep. 57 (25): 681–6. PMID 18583954. http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/mm5725a2.htm. 
  32. ↑ "New HIV diagnoses rising in New York City among young men who have sex with men". http://www.nyc.gov/html/doh/html/pr2007/pr079-07.shtml. 
  33. ↑ 33.0 33.1 "HIV rates skyrocketing among men who have sex with men". http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/07/24/asia/AS-MED-Australia-AIDS-Conference-Male-Sex.php. 
  34. ↑ Williams R (2006). "Global challenges in liver disease". Hepatology 44 (3): 521–6. doi:10.1002/hep.21347. PMID 16941687. 
  35. ↑ "WHO". http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs204/en/index.html. 
  36. ↑ Petersen NJ, Barrett DH, Bond WW, Berquist KR, Favero MS, Bender TR, Maynard JE (1976). "Hepatitis B surface antigen in saliva, impetiginous lesions, and the environment in two remote Alaskan villages". Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 32 (4): 572–574. PMID 791124. 
  37. ↑ "Hepatitis B – the facts". http://www.health.vic.gov.au/ideas/diseases/hepb. 
  38. ↑ Shapiro CN (1993). "Epidemiology of hepatitis B". Pediatr. Infect. Dis. J. 12 (5): 433–7. doi:10.1097/00006454-199305000-00036. PMID 8392167. 
  39. ↑ "Risky Sexual Behavior Among MSM In Europe Increasing Number Of Syphilis Cases, Health Officials Say". http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/92656.php. 
  40. ↑ STD Surveillance 2006: Men Who Have Sex With Men, Center for Disease Control
  41. ↑ 41.0 41.1 41.2 41.3 Syphilis & MSM (Men Who Have Sex With Men) – CDC Fact Sheet, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
  42. ↑ Christopher K Fairley, Jane S Hocking and Nicholas Medland. "Syphilis: back on the rise, but not unstoppable". Medical Journal of Australia 2005; 183 (4): 172–173. http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/183_04_150805/fai10406_fm.html#0_i1091617 
  43. ↑ M Hourihan, H Wheeler, R Houghton, B T Goh (2004). "Lessons from the syphilis outbreak in homosexual men in east London". Sex Transm Infect 2004;80:509–511 80 (6): 509–11. doi:10.1136/sti.2004.011023. PMID 15572625. PMC 1744940. http://sti.bmj.com/content/80/6/509.abstract 
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 44.2 44.3 44.4 44.5 "STD Facts – HPV and Men". http://www.cdc.gov/std/hpv/STDFact-HPV-and-men.htm. Retrieved 2007-08-17. 
  45. ↑ Frisch M, Smith E, Grulich A, Johansen C (2003). "Cancer in a population-based cohort of men and women in registered homosexual partnerships". Am. J. Epidemiol. 157 (11): 966–72. doi:10.1093/aje/kwg067. PMID 12777359. http://171.66.121.65/cgi/content/full/157/11/966. "However, the risk for invasive anal squamous carcinoma, which is believed to be caused by certain types of sexually transmitted human papilloma viruses, notably type 16, was significantly 31-fold elevated at a crude incidence of 25.6 per 100,000 person-years.". 
  46. ↑ Chin-Hong PV, Vittinghoff E, Cranston RD, et al. (2005). "Age-related prevalence of anal cancer precursors in homosexual men: the EXPLORE study". J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97 (12): 896–905. doi:10.1093/jnci/dji163. PMID 15956651. 
  47. ↑ http://www.ndsc.ie/hpsc/A-Z/Gastroenteric/Giardiasis/Factsheet/
  48. ↑ http://www.water-research.net/Giardia.htm

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